Classification of Traction

Traction is static in position that provides a form of immobilization. Traction can be continuous and intermittent. Continuous traction is maintained all time for example, traction on an unrepaired fracture. Intermittent traction means it is either applied for short periods of time and for example, intermittent cervical traction or the traction which can be released for short periods of time.

Traction is used as running or balanced suspension traction. Running traction can be applied to a body part with a pull in one direction or along one plane. The only counter traction. It can be used in conjunction with skin or skeletal traction and also keeps the fractured area immobile when the patient moves.

Traction can be classified as manual or mechanical by the way it is applied to the patient’s body. Mechanical traction is also divided into skin and skeletal traction. Plaster and brace are the two other types of traction that are used in specific situations.

Here are some of the forms of the forms of Traction that are given below:

• Manual Traction: Manual traction can be performed by a person’s hand exerting a pulling force. It is utilized to reduce fractures and dislocation and also helps to apply a steady pull while mechanical traction is released for readjustment or during a cast is applied. Manual traction should be done with a smooth, firm grip as sudden jerky motions of the can cause extreme pain. Manual traction cannot be used easily as it is restricted to specific orders.
• Skin Traction: Skin traction can be directly attached to the patient’s skin to disable a body part continuously or intermittently. The direct application of pulling force of patient’s skin and soft tissues can be effected by using adhesive or nonadhesive cast, a boot, a belt or a halter.
• Skeletal Traction: Skeleton traction can be attached directly to the patient’s skeletal system to disable or immobilize a body part. The direct application of pulling force to the patient’s skeletal system may be accomplished by attaching pins, screws, wires and tongs. Skeletal traction allows greater traction time and heavier weights than does skin traction.
• Plaster Traction: Plaster traction is skeletal reaction applied by incorporating the ends of pins or wires in a cast that maintains a continuous pulling force. For example, when a short arm cast with skeletal traction on the thumb is used for correction of a first metacarpal fracture.
• Brace Traction: Brace traction employs a brace to exert a pull on a portion of the body, as in the case of hyperextension braces or long leg braces for correction of leg alignment deformities due to fractures of the distal portion of the femur.

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Constructivism is a learning theory that perceives that people acquire knowledge through their experiences, interaction with the outside world and their ideas of the world around them. The theory got wider appreciation through the work of Jean Piaget in the early 20^th century. Hence, he is considered as the founder of Constructivism. The theory of Constructivism is a part of epistemology which is a branch of philosophy which deals with how knowledge is acquired.

The theory has helped in developing ways of finding out how a person’s knowledge in various subjects is acquired and how it is applied in various instances. This theory is much recognized in the field of psychology and in the field of teaching. In the field of teaching it has a greater relevance because it can help teachers in finding out the best ways to teach their students.

Social Constructivism

Social Constructivism is a sociological theory that assumes that within a social group, knowledge is constructed or developed. This is regarded as the driving force behind small and indigenous cultures which share the same kind of beliefs and follow the same traditions. Social Constructivism is one of the major concepts in educational psychology where in constructivism is studied along with behaviorism and social learning in child development.

Personal Constructivism

Personal Constructivism believes that people organize their experiences so that they can understand and understand the flow of their day to day life. The proponents of the theory argue that people devise various ways or hypotheses to understand themselves and the people around them in their own limited sense of the world. It is further argued that personal constructivism has a greater role to play in interpersonal communication as well.

It has been found that people with complex personal constructs have better social perception than people with simple or less complex personal constructs. People with complex constructs because they can make more sophisticated distinctions, they are considered and have also known to be better communicators. The perception of an individual is shaped by the culture, family, social groups and education. These practices have known to shape the perception of a person.

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Entrepreneurship can be defined as a process where in opportunities that were not explored earlier are explored are identified and exploited as part of a business process. Entrepreneurship has a great role to play in the development of business organizations. Most of the successful business organizations today were established because the visionaries could observe a potential which other were not able to perceive. Those visions have given rise to what is called as great business opportunities that they have been exploiting.

International Entrepreneurship:

International Entrepreneurship can be defined as a process where by the business process adopts innovative, proactive and exhibits risk-taking behavior. The risk-taking behavior is one of the most important and featured characteristics in an International Entrepreneurship. Higher risks are taken where there is a great uncertainty in the happening of an event. But when the event does happen, the returns will be very high. So, for earning great returns, entrepreneurs are ready to take great risks.

An entrepreneur starts his/her life as an SME or Small or Medium Enterprise. Small or medium enterprises are characterized by the number of employees working in the organization. Usually, a concern is considered to a small or a medium enterprise when the total number of employees are less than 500.

The significance of small and medium enterprises cannot be ignored in today’s global business. In fact, every year many number of SMEs are entering into many fields promoting their business globally. Some of the industries include import and export of goods and services, education, research, business process outsourcing, knowledge process outsourcing, market research, etc. Today, small and medium-scale enterprises are generating more employment than large corporate organizations. People are willing to work in small and medium-sized enterprises. Some people are even trying establish their own enterprises.

In many countries, the socio-political and economic environment plays a major role in encouraging or discouraging a small or a medium-scale business. The framework in a country such as the formalities, hindrances on funds allocation, the tax laws and the bottlenecks in the particular industry play a major role in the development or destruction of small business. In some countries the traditional and conservative attitudes, prejudices and misconceptions of the people also play a major role in the discouragement of small businesses. These conservative attitudes, misconceptions and prejudices narrow down the observation of a person resulting in not grabbing a huge potential or an opportunity in hand.

Apart from cultural aspects, economic aspects such as total lack of or under-availability of resources and lack of capabilities determine to a great extent of the success of the business.

But, some entrepreneurs survive and triumph even in the negative scenarios. Some of the determinants for their success include

• Innovation: Innovation is the biggest factors for any entrepreneur. There are so many businesses coming up. But, the most innovative among them will survive. Innovation acts like a shield in the cut-throat competition. Businesses which do not innovate quickly will not be able to survive in the cut-throat competition.
• Availability of adequate finances: Finance today, is another, big handicaps for any business. Availability of cheap finance is a promise for the business to bring in more resources, more minds and hands in action.

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One of the biggest mysteries about humans is their evolution to speak and communicate effectively. No other animal in the entire world can communicate as strongly as humans.

The science behind communication can be very puzzling when we look at communication at the very grass root level. But nevertheless, communication plays a very important role in our daily as well as in the most important turns in our lives.

Communication is defined as the process of giving, receiving information or ideas by writing, speech or visual means, so that the message communicated is completely understood by the recipients.

The key to effective communication is to guarantee that the information which is passed on is understood by the recipient, stimulating them to take appropriate action or affecting the way the recipient thinks in some way.

Advantages of effective communication

Most of the business organizations have understood that effective communication is the key to ensure the success of the organization at all the levels. Some of the benefits that accrue to the organization for effective communication include

• The power of decision making and problem solving increases
• Productivity of the organization increases
• The workflow or the process or the performance of the organization can be streamlined
• The professional image of the organization is enhanced
• Effective communication helps in maintaining sound business relationship with business clients.
• Positive and successful response to the organization is assured.

Today communication is more essential than ever before because of the changes that are taking place in organizations

• Advancement of Technology: With the advancement of technology, technologically advanced and easy to use communication devices are being developed. With the help of these devices communication has become a very easy task across large distances.
• Global Communications: Many businesses are going global thanks to the introduction of new and improved technologies. Many multinational corporations are operating from overseas and many national companies are seeking business in foreign nations. For all these things to happen, effective communication is very essential.
• The Age of Information: The advent of internet has brought a great revolution in the exchange of information from one part of the world to another part of the world. One can receive huge amounts of data through the internet today in seemingly less time.
• Teamwork is today’s Mantra: Long gone are the days of a person working alone. Today, team work is an important feature in not only large corporations but also in medium and small organizations. The productivity of a team player is generally high when compared to a person working alone. The reason is not only the added hands but also the added brains which help in thinking out new, efficient and effective ways to work better.

With the above features and advantages it is very clear that communication plays a major role in today’s business world.

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Electromagnetism is one of the fundamental phenomenon in nature. It is responsible for almost all the phenomena in our daily life. Electromagnetism spans both electric fields and magnetic fields. When observed individually, electricity and magnetism behave differently and when unified, we can observe that both are interdependent on each other and they cannot be separated from each other.

In order to fully understand Electromagnetism, we have to look at the four laws that govern electricity and magnetism. These are Gauss’s laws in Electrostatics, Gauss’s law in Magnetism, Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law. These laws were combined by James Clerk Maxwell in the year 1864 to give a complete set of relation and connection between both the forces of electricity and magnetism.

Gauss’s law in Electrostatics

The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the enclosed electric charge.

Take an example of an electric field, a plane surface area and a normal unit vector at an angle in co-ordination with the electric field, then the resultant electric flux is considered as a scalar product. This defines electric flux as volt multiplied by meter.

Gauss’s law in Magnetism

The magnetic field has divergence equal to that of zero.

Gauss’s law can be applied to a magnetic flux through a closed surface. As magnetic field lines are looped in circles, The magnetic field lines are all looped for all closed surfaces. Hence a closed surface exhibits zero magnetic flux.

Ampere’s law

The line integral of magnetic field intensity H about any closed path is exactly equal to the net current enclosed by that path.

The only dependant in Ampere’s law is the current that is flowing through the wire and not the diameter of the wire. The magnetic field is dependant on the current that is enclosed in the loop of the wire.

Faraday’s law

The induced electromotive force (EMF) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.

The law states that independent of the change in the induced magnetic force, voltage will be generated. This can be either the change in the magnetic field or by a magnet moving toward or away from the coil of wire or moving the coil toward or away from the magnetic field will produce voltage.

These four laws are primary to the functioning of the modern electric system. Ampere’s law is useful in the production and maintenance of transformers. Faraday’s law is useful in the production of power. Without these laws, the concept of power production and power distribution would not have been possible.

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When a business is started, an investment is made into the firm in areas such as machinery, land, inventory and other assets. By investing in these assets, the business wants to produce a value, a product or a service to sell it to the end users for a profit.

When we look at the financial side of the business and its activities, we can understand that the assets of the firm are put on the right hand side and the liabilities are put on the left hand side. The assets and liabilities must match in figures. When we look closely at the assets and liabilities, we can see that assets include machinery, land and buildings, inventory, patents, trademarks, investments, debtors, etc.

On the other hand, if we look at the liabilities side of the balance sheet, we can find share capital, long term liabilities such as bank loans, term loans, debentures and short term liabilities or current liabilities such as creditors, bills payable, expenses to be paid, etc. This is the capital structure of a firm.

The firm, in order to make profits, the firm must create more cash flow than it uses. In other words, the cash coming in from the various activities must be more than the money invested by the firm. This increase in the cash flow over a period of time is called profit, which is usually calculated over one year, half year or a quarter of a year.

In order to generate more profits, the firm can take up what is called cost reduction. In cost reduction, by using new machinery, or new ways of production, the firm tries to reduce the cost of production to the extent possible. Cost reduction is considered to be one of the best techniques for profit maximization.

Another way that firms can increase their profits is through producing in bulk quantities. When produced in bulk quantities, the firm will experience a decreased cost on individual product produced. So, the decrease in cost of production without the proportional decrease in price will increase the profit of the firm.

In order that cost reduction and increased production takes place, a firm must utilize highly economic ways of production such as utilization of efficient techniques in production and procurement of materials in bulk from suppliers, etc. All these techniques are known to decrease the cost of production and increase the profitability of the firm.

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Tax on a good is added to the marginal cost of seller of the goods. An illustration can explain the shift supply and demand curve. $1 of tax on one gallon diesel fuel will change the supply curve due to the amount of tax. The shifts in the supply curve, the equilibrium of price and quantity will also change because of tax. Eventually the impact on quantity and price will depend on the price elasticity’s of demand and supply.

In the above illustrated figure shows elasticity of demand and supply determine the impact of the tax. Here, the curve shifts upwards due to the amount of the tax. So, the equilibrium quantity falls and the equilibrium prices rises because of the tax. The decrease in the equilibrium of quantity creates a loss of consumer surplus and also producers’ surplus, which is known as deadweight loss from the tax. The size of the deadweight loss and the relative size of the impact on the price and quantity are varied. As, a result the supply curve and the demand curve have different price elasticity.

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